Volume 8, Manuscript ID
es20250007, p. 01-13, 2025
Doi: https://doi.org/10.32435/envsmoke-2025-0007
Environmental
Smoke, e-ISSN: 2595-5527
“A leading multidisciplinary peer-reviewed journal”
Full Article:
Brachyplatystoma
rousseauxii (CASTELNAU, 1855) AND Brachyplatystoma vaillantii (VALENCIENNES,
1840) IN THE AMAZON BASIN: INTEGRATIVE REVIEW ON ECOLOGY, TAXONOMY, AND
CONSERVATION STRATEGIES
Kedma Marques da
Costa1* (https://orcid.org/0009-0004-3260-3110); Uswa Sajid1,2 (https://orcid.org/0009-0003-3680-3139)
1Núcleo de Ecologia Aquática e Pesca da Amazônia (NEAP), Post-Graduate
Programme in Aquatic Ecology and Fisheries (PPGEAP), Federal University of Pará
(UFPA), Avenida Perimetral, 2651, Terra Firme, 66077-530 Belém, Pará, Brasil
2Group for Integrated Biological Investigation
(GIBI), Centre for Advanced Studies in Biodiversity (CEABIO), Federal
University of Pará (UFPA), Avenida Perimetral, Km 01, Guamá, 66075-750 Belém,
Pará, Brasil
*Corresponding author: kedmacosta.km@gmail.com
Submitted on: 17 Sep. 2025
Accepted on: 06 Oct. 2025
Published on: 05 Nov. 2025
License:
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Abstract
The aquatic biodiversity of the Amazon
basin is heavily influenced by environmental factors, such as altitude,
rainfall cycles, and dry seasons. These factors impact the water's physical and
chemical parameters, consequently affecting the distribution and diversity of
fish. The order Siluriformes Cuvier, 1817, particularly the
family Pimelodidae Bonaparte, 1835, is ecologically and economically
significant due to its migratory behavior and dependence on the region's water
variability. The genus Brachyplatystoma
Bleeker, 1862 includes species of high commercial value, such as “dourada” Brachyplatystoma
rousseauxii (Castelnau, 1855) and “piramutaba” Brachyplatystoma vaillantii
(Valenciennes, 1840) and is fundamental to fishing in the Amazon. This study
provides a thorough review of the taxonomy, ecology, migration, and genetic
diversity of species in this genus. Information was collected from scientific
articles, theses, and books using databases such as Scholar Google, SciELO,
Scopus, Web of Science, WoRMS, Consensus, and INPA databases. The results
underscore the significance of morphological and ecological adaptations in
response to the seasonal dynamics of Amazonian rivers. Additionally,
eco-morphological analyses reveal essential information about habitat use,
resource sharing, and evolutionary patterns shaped by environmental pressures
and phylogenetic constraints. These data are essential for developing
sustainable fisheries management strategies and conserving aquatic biodiversity
in the Amazon.
Keywords: Fish.
Pimelodidae. Morphology. Taxonomy.
1 Introduction
The
aquatic biodiversity of the Amazon basin has a variety of species depending on
environmental factors. Among these aspects, altitude, the rain cycle, periods
of drought, and dry spells affect the physical and chemical parameters of the
water, such as temperature, and vegetation cover directly influences the
distribution and biological biodiversity of Amazonian fish (RÍOS-VILLAMIZAR et
al., 2020). As a result, environmental variations have developed different life
cycles (REIS et al., 2016). The order Siluriformes Cuvier,
1817—known as catfish—corresponds to one of the most populous and diverse
groups of freshwater fish (VAN DER LAAN; ESCHMEYER; FRICKE, 2014). The ichthyofauna of the family Pimelodidae Bonaparte, 1835,
belonging to the order Siluriformes, is of high ecological and commercial
relevance in the Amazon region (FORMIGA; BATISTA; ALVES-GOMES, 2021). They are
migratory, depending on the seasonality of the region, occupying the vast
expanse of the Amazon River, which is essential for reproduction, feeding, and
growth, highlighting their dependence on water variability and the completeness
of Amazonian aquatic ecosystems (RUFFINO; ISAAC, 1995).
The genus Brachyplatystoma Bleeker,
1862 comprises seven current species: Brachyplatystoma
capapretum Lundberg &
Akama, 2005; Brachyplatystoma filamentosum (Lichtenstein 1819); Brachyplatystoma
juruense (Boulenger 1898); Brachyplatystoma platynema Boulenger
1898; Brachyplatystoma rousseauxii (Castelnau 1855); Brachyplatystoma
tigrinum (Britski 1981); Brachyplatystoma vaillantii (Valenciennes
1840) (FRICKE; ESCHMEYER; VAN DER LAAN, 2025); and one fossil species — Brachyplatystoma
promagdalena Lundberg, 2005 (LUNDBERG, 2005). Among the species of the
genus, B. rousseauxii, B. vaillantii, and
B. filamentosum stand out as being of
high interest for fishing in the Amazon and, consequently, of economic value
associated with the fish (IBAMA, 2005; 2007; BRASIL, 2012).
Taking into account the available socioeconomic, biological, and ecological relevance, it
is essential to obtain data that assist in defining management policies aimed
at the sustainability of fishing activities and the conservation of fishery
resources. In this context, molecular biology represents a means of scientific
relevance, contributing to the understanding of aspects related to phylogeny,
population genetics, and phylogeography of organisms (FORMIGA; BATISTA; ALVES-GOMES, 2021).
Research on the relationship between morphological variations among species can
reflect changes in the different environmental and/or biological variables to
which organisms are subjected (CASATTI et al., 2006).
Such differences can be investigated through the application of
morphological and biometric (ecomorphological) indices. Reflecting the aspects
of the individual in relation to the environment, acting as indicators of
habits and occupation of different habitats of the species (GATZ Jr., 1979a).
The Amazonian ichthyofauna of the genus Brachyplatystoma Bleeker, 1862, of the Pimelodidae family is made
up of migratory species of ecological and economic importance to fisheries,
such as B. rousseauxii and B. vaillantii. The seasonal
environmental and hydrological aspects influence the habitat, life cycle, and
morphology of the fish, so developing sustainable and ecological management
studies and genetic and morphological studies are fundamental for understanding
the adaptations, biodiversity, and identification of the species of Brachyplatystoma.
The aim of this literature review was therefore to survey the genus Brachyplatystoma
in the Amazon Basin. In order to observe the adaptive
and evolutionary processes, as well as the differentiation between species from
a morphological, ecological, biological, and genetic point of view of the “piramutaba” B.
vaillantii and “dourada” B. rousseauxii species and their ecological and commercial
importance in the Amazon.
2 Material and Methods
This explanatory literature review gathered and
analysed scientific research on the migration, sustainable fishing, ecology,
and genetics of Amazonian species of the genus Brachyplatystoma. References were searched for in Scholar Google,
SciELO, Scopus, Web of Science, WoRMS, Consensus, and INPA databases, without a
defined time period to provide an overview of the subject through available literature.
Keywords such as "Brachyplatystoma," "fish migration
Amazon," "sustainable fishing," and "population genetics"
were used. Articles, theses, dissertations, and book chapters discussing
ecological, genetic, and biological aspects related to the management of Brachyplatystoma
species, including B. rousseauxii and B. vaillantii, were
included. The preferred method was to read the titles and abstracts to
qualitatively verify the main findings and existing gaps.
3 Results
and Discussion
Among the Ostariophysi, the order Siluriformes is particularly diverse
with wide geographical distribution (NELSON, 1994; DE PINNA et al., 2025),
adaptive potential, and ecological importance for aquatic ecosystems, such as
in tropical regions in the Amazon basin, where many fish perform essential
functions in the arrangement and roles of aquatic communities (GRANDE; EASTMAN,
1986; NELSON; GRANDE; WILSON, 2016). This fish order — commonly known as
catfishes — inhabit primarily freshwater environment, although some families,
such as Ariidae and Plotosidae, have adapted to
marine and estuarine habitats (BURGESS, 1989; DAGOSTA; DE PINNA, 2019). There
are around 3,600 species of Siluriformes, but around 30% of catfish species are
still to be discovered (OTA et al., 2015).
The family Pimelodidae Swainson, 1838 (long-whiskered catfishes — order
Siluriformes, superfamily Pimelodoidea) includes 30
genera containing more than 110 species (SILVA et al., 2024), typical from the
Neotropical region (MEES, 1974).
Based on molecular analyses, Silva et al. (2024) propose that
Pimelodidae is divided into four major clades: (1) Steindachneridion
clade, (2) Leiarius + Phractocephalus clade, (3) Sorubiminae, and (4) Pimelodinae,
and in addition, supporting the monophyly of this family (SILVA et al., 2024).
In this way, this hypothesis leads to solve previous phylogeny-based-only on
morphological characters, such as Lundberg et al. (1991) and De Pinna, 1998.
These catfishes are medium to large in size,
most of them are predators (LUNDBERG et al., 1988; LUNDBERG; MAGO-LECCIA; NASS,
1991). This has sparked interest in conservation and fisheries management
studies of the genus Brachyplatystoma Bleeker,
1862, which is distributed in Brasil, eastern Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas,
Peru, and Bolivia (BURGESS, 1989), including the Amazonian commercially
important species targeted in this study — the “piramutaba”
Brachyplatystoma vaillantii (Valenciennes, 1840) and the “dourada” Brachyplatystoma rousseauxii (Castelnau,
1855).
Fishing and economic importance
The “piramutaba” (Brachyplatystoma
vaillantii) and the “dourada”
(Brachyplatystoma rousseauxii) are freshwater catfish, known as large
migratory catfish, because they travel great distances from the estuary to the
source of the Amazon River near the Andes for spawning (BARTHEM; GOULDING,
1997).
The fishing fleet is made up of artisanal and
industrial vessels (BARTHEM, 1990a, b). Artisanal fishing is limited to
continental and estuarine areas, with both species targeted (BARTHEM; PETRERE
Jr., 1995). The industrial fleet operates exclusively in Amazonian estuarine
areas, with the target species being the “piramutaba”
(BARTHEM, 2000). In the 1990s, the fishing stocks investigated, covering the
years 1984 and 1985 for “piramutada” in the Amazon
estuarine region, were found to be at risk of overfishing, i.e., the fishing
effort was high (BARTHEM; PETRERE Jr., 1995). For the sea bream fishery,
overfishing occurred in 2002 (ALONSO, 2002). As a result of the recent
exploitation of these two fishery resources, they were included in the National
List of Species of Aquatic Invertebrates and Fish Overexploited or Threatened
with Overexploitation in Appendix II (MINISTÉRIO DO MEIO AMBIENTE, 2004).
Ecology and morphology
The main morphological characteristics present are the
presence of three pairs of barbels (one maxillary pair and two mentonian pairs); a naked body, i.e., free of plates; a
robust adipose fin; a furred caudal fin; widely separated nostrils absent of
barbels; and aculei on the pectoral and dorsal fins, which may be present or
absent; when present, they are rigid (BURGESS, 1989; LUNDBERG; LITTMANN, 2003).
The ichthyofauna of the Neotropical groups of the Siluriformes order has
an evolutionary history associated with the watercourse (CASTRO, 2021). For
this reason, Amazonian streams have morphological characteristics such as
current speed, water volume, and suspended particulate matter, among others
(UIEDA; CASTRO, 1999), and physiological characteristics
adapted to the seasonal water variation of floods and droughts, allowing the
ichthyofauna to take advantage of the resources available for reproduction, migration,
feeding, and other activities (TAYLOR, 1996). This complexity allows for
simultaneity so that each individual takes advantage
of the habitat and microhabitat with competitive advantages (WILLIS;
WINEMILLER; LOPEZ-FERNANDEZ, 2005).
The evolutionary relationship and adaptive effect of
morphology and ecological factors through individuals, populations, and
communities is called ecomorphology (PERES-NETO,
1999). It is based on the concept that morphological heterogeneity between
species is associated with different biological and/or environmental aspects
(CASATTI; CASTRO, 2006). These differences can be studied through
the use of morphological and biometric indices as patterns expressed by
the organism when associated with the environment and are capable of being
indicators of the habits or adaptations of species to the appropriation of
different habitats (GATZ Jr., 1979a).
However, this correlation can occur through phylogenetic induction,
indicating that genetically close species exhibit morphological and ecological
similarities (PERES-NETO, 1999). This is because the same morphological
attributes used to link with ecology are used to group individuals from
phylogenetically close species (DOUGLAS; MATTHEWS, 1992).
It is therefore necessary to check morphological characters together
with the phylogenetic proximity between species, providing ecomorphological
inferences, especially of adaptive convergence and divergence. This tool
analyses the arrangement and organisation of communities, competition, resource
use, ecological niches, and taxon diversity (GATZ Jr., 1979b; WATSON; BALON,
1984; WIKRAMANAYAKE, 1990; WINEMILLER, 1991; DOUGLAS; MATTHEWS, 1992; SCHLUTER, 1993;
WINEMILLER; KELSO-WINEMILLER; BRENKERT,
1995; PIET, 1998; CHUANG; LIN;
LIANG, 2006; KERFOOT Jr.; SCHAEFER, 2006; HOAGSTROM; BERRY,
2008).
In this way, biological analyses such as growth, ecological niche,
habitats, and fishing dynamics are fundamental for the sustainable management
and conservation of species such as “piramutaba” and
“dourada.” In the case of bony fish, otoliths (rigid
parts found in the inner ear) (LAGLER; BARDACH; MILLER, 1963) are commonly used
for ecobiological studies (MORALES-NIN, 2000), such
as age and growth (CHILTON; BEAMISH, 1982; CASSELMAN,
1983; McFARLANE; BEAMISH, 1987; HAUSER et al., 2018),
which are important for determining the reproductive period. Species
identification (SCHMIDT, 1969); systematics and taxonomy (AKKIRAN, 1984; 1985;
NOLF, 1985; KINACIGİL et al., 2000); phylogeny (LOMBARTE; CASTELLÓN, 1991);
genetics (GAEMERS, 1976); and microchemistry (THRESHER, 1999; SANBORN; TELMER, 2003), among
others.
Most studies on teleost species using otoliths are
carried out with the pair called sagitta, as it is the largest for determining
age and growth (SECOR; DEAN; LABAN, 1992). However, for fish of the
Ostariophysi superorder, to which the “piramutaba”
and the gilthead seabream belong, the otoliths are modified and have a pair of
sagitta otoliths, which are small and delicate, making it difficult to carry
out studies (LAGLER; BARDACH; MILLER, 1963).
The otoliths most commonly used
for analysis are lapillus otoliths in terms of shape and measurements to define
growth over the ontogenetic growth period (RÊGO; FABRÉ; LOZÁNO, 1998; PIRKER,
2001; ALONSO, 2002). The literature on otolith morphology and morphometry
presents few studies, e.g. Rêgo, Fabré and Lozáno (1998) that described the lapillus otolith of the
gilthead seabream (B. rousseauxii) through morphometric analysis.
Nevertheless, the morphological definition of otoliths
in conjunction with morphometrics is still lacking for catfish species
belonging to the superorder Ostariophysi, including the “dourada”
(B. rousseauxii) and the “piramutaba” (B.
vaillantii) (VILLACORTA
CORREA, 1997). The morphological characterisation of otoliths shows important
structures for the description or identification of a species or genus,
especially in trophic chain studies (FITCH; BROWNELL Jr., 1968; FROST; LOWRY,
1981; GRANADEIRO; SILVA, 2000; WAESSLE; LASTA; FAVERO, 2003). In fish from
tropical environments, the constitution of growth rings is affected by various
conditions such as food availability, seasonality, and salinity, among others
(SPARRE; VENEMA, 1998). In view of this, the identification of the first growth
rings is difficult to determine due to the consequence of growth (CHILTON; BEAMISH, 1982). However, according to Alonso (2002), the first growth marks on
the otoliths of the “piramutaba” sea bream are not
considered because the individual does not follow a growth pattern, since
throughout their life cycle, they inhabit the estuary, which is a transnational
environment influenced by rainfall and tides.
However, the first growth marks are formed on the otoliths of sea bream
and “piramutaba” during the period in which these
species inhabit the Amazon estuary, which is a very peculiar and unique
environment directly influenced by local rainfall (EGLER; SCHWASSMANN, 1964; SCHWASSMANN; BARTHEM; CARVALHO, 1989), in addition to other
factors that may be considerably influencing the pattern of marking the growth
rings of the fish that live there (EGLER; SCHWASSMANN, 1964; SCHWASSMANN; BARTHEM; CARVALHO, 1989). Causing changes in the
ecology of the species, such as intensified predation and competition for food
and habitat, among other reasons (BARTHEM; GOULDING, 1997).
Evolutionary connections and
physical characteristics within the genus Brachyplatystoma
The genus Brachyplatystoma is
strongly recognised as a single lineage based on phylogenetic studies that
yielded six equally plausible trees (65 steps; consistency index = 0.60;
retention index = 0.81) according to Lundberg and Akama (2005). This
evolutionary understanding sheds light on the connections within the genus and
its nearest relatives. A significant shared morphological trait of Brachyplatystoma, which it has in common
with the closely related genus Platynematichthys
Bleeker 1858, is the existence of a distinctly specialised bipartite gas
bladder. This two-sectioned organ is distinct among catfishes, differing from
the single-chambered, thin-walled gas bladder regarded as the ancestral form
within Pimelodidae and the majority of other Siluriformes. Another notable
feature is the ventral crest present on the cleithrum, creating a slender ridge
positioned between the pectoral spine’s joint and the rear process.
This crest can be found in all species except B. tigrinum, where it is significantly diminished. This
characteristic is not found in other catfish groups. The structure of the
caudal fin also serves as an important taxonomic indicator. Juvenile and
subadult fish display elongated upper and lower filaments of the caudal fin,
which consist of a single, unbranched main ray (LUNDBERG; AKAMA, 2005; LUNDBERG;
MAGO-LECCIA; NASS, 1991). In B. juruense, B. platynemum, and B. tigrinum, these filaments continue
into their adult stage, whereas in B.
rousseauxii, B. vaillantii, B. filamentosum, and B. capapretum, they are progressively diminished or absent due to
negative allometry or physical injury. Phylogenetic studies indicate a
significant clade that includes B.
capapretum, B. filamentosum, B. rousseauxii, B. juruense, B. platynemum, and B.
tigrinum, which is closely related to B.
vaillantii. Four critical morphological synapomorphies characterise this
clade.
All species of the genus Brachyplatystoma are South American
riverine catfishes (family Pimelodidae), distributed primarily in the Amazon
Basin, with several occurrences in the Orinoco and Guianas rivers.
In this study, the main focus is on Brachyplatystoma rousseauxii (“dourada”) and Brachyplatystoma
vaillantii (“piramutaba”), two of the most
abundant and economically important migratory catfishes in the Amazon region.
The identification key developed here is a compilation adapted from De
Queiroz et al. (2013) — Peixes do Rio
Madeira VOLUME III — which can be consulted below, solely for the purpose
of assisting in the identification of these siluriform fish species:
|
Updated taxonomic key for Order
Siluriformes in Amazon (based on DE QUEIROZ et al., 2013): 1'
Reniform plate located before the dorsal fin resembles a kidney or bean shape…………Phractocephalus hemioliopterus 1"
A small anterior dorsal plate, varying in form but
never kidney-shaped………………………………………………………………………2 2'
Body is distinctly compressed laterally; it possesses a very extended anal
fin that takes up more than half the body length; gill openings are
significantly wide, reaching nearly to the joining point of the dentaries
(“chin”); numerous long gill rakers: Genus Hypophthalmus (3 species)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………3 2" The body is slightly compressed laterally to
somewhat flattened; anal fin is short, making up around a quarter or less of
the body length; gill openings are brief, covering at most half of the
ventral side of the head; gill rakers are typically short and limited in
number (exception: Sorubim maniradii)……………………………………………………………………………………………5 3' Very broad maxillary and mental barbels, each adorned
with a black membranous flap that flares towards the tip of the barbel……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Hypophthalmus fimbriatus 3" Narrow maxillary and mental barbels lacking any
noticeable membranous flap……………………………………………………………4 4'
The head is short, with its length only slightly exceeding its width; the
lower lobe of the caudal fin is rounded…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Hypophthalmus edentatus 4"
The head is elongated, with its length significantly greater than its width;
the lobes of the caudal fin are pointed and symmetrical………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Hypophthalmus marginatus 5' The dorsal fin contains 9 to 11 branched rays: Genus Leiarius (2 species)………………………………………………………………………6 5" The dorsal fin has 6 or 7 branched rays……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………7 6' The dorsal fin is disproportionately tall (roughly
double the body height); the body is dark with two light, curved longitudinal
stripes along the sides…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Leiarius pictus 6" The dorsal fin is lower (matching the body height);
the body is light with dark polygonal spots interspersed with light wavy
lines………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Leiarius marmoratus 7' The premaxilla extends like a rostrum, leaving the plate
of villiform teeth visible ventrally…………………………………………8 7" Premaxilla slightly larger than the dentary
(sometimes revealing a small segment of the villiform tooth band)………11 8' Stout body , almost circular in
cross-section; coloration is characterized by black spots and small, dark,
elongated blotches, especially prominent on the head; median rays of the
caudal fin are light…………………Sorubimichthys planiceps 8"
The body is slightly compressed laterally towards the back; its coloration
features a central longitudinal black stripe that runs along the body and
extends onto the median caudal rays: Genus Sorubim (3 species)………………………………………9 9' The gill rakers are long and plentiful (31 to 37)…………………………………………………………………………………Sorubim maniradii 9" The gill rakers
are relatively brief and few in number (13 to 23)…………………………………………………………………………………10 10' The pectoral fin has
9 branched rays; the head is relatively broad; the underside of the rostrum
is uniformly clear, lacking melanophores………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Sorubim lima 10" The pectoral fin consists of 8 branched rays; the
head is narrow; the underside of the rostrum displays a light median section
and a dark border, with melanophores particularly noticeable at the tip…………………………………Sorubim elongatus 11' The mandible is prognathous, with the dentary notably
longer than the premaxilla…………Hemisorubim
platyrhynchos 11" The premaxilla is longer
than the dentary, with the mouth positioned subterminally……………………………………………12 12' Pectoral
fins lack spines, featuring a flexible main ray………………………………………………………………………………………………13 12" The
pectoral fin has its main ray evolved into a stinging spine……………………………………………………………………………………20 13'
The premaxilla possesses a primary row of capitate teeth (enlarged at the
distal end), forming a sharp edge…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Calophysus macropterus 13" The
premaxilla contains a band of villiform teeth of varying widths…………………………………………………………………………14 14'
Slim, tapering snout, with the mouth positioned clearly below the tip; body
is gray with yellowish pectoral and pelvic fins; has a muscular, gizzard-like
stomach…………………………………………………………………………………………Pimelodina flavipinnis 14"
Wide snout, with mouth positioned at the tip or slightly below; body is
uniformly gray or pale brown; fins are light to clear, sometimes featuring
dark spots……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………15 15'
Mouth positioned nearly at the tip; premaxilla displays a central dip in the
frontal view, creating an upward-pointing "v"; adipose fin is
exceptionally long, with a gap between it and the dorsal fin that is less
than the dorsal fin's base……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Pinirampus pirinampu 15" Mouth located subterminally;
premaxilla lacks a central dip, appearing as a consistent arch in the frontal
view; shorter adipose fin, with a space from the dorsal that matches the
length of the dorsal base………………………………………16 16' Slender upper
lip; features two slender, dark spots (in the shape of commas) at the base of
the caudal lobes (may only
be visible at
the upper lobe's
base)…………………………………… …………………………Genus Megalonema (3 species) 16"
Wide and fleshy upper lip; no dark spots present at the base of the caudal
lobes……………………………………………………19 17' Extended
pelvic fin with a broadened, flat end……………………………………………………………………Megalonema
amaxanthum 17" Short,
triangular pelvic fin with no extension at the end……………………………………………………………………………………………18 18'
Long supraoccipital process, nearly reaching the predorsal
plate; large eye, around 5 times the head length…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Megalonema platanum 18"
Short supraoccipital process, distanced from the predorsal
plate by approximately the eye's size; small eye, about 8 times the head
length……………………………………………………………………………………………………………Megalonema platycephalum 19' Gray body with
large round or oval dark spots (similar to eye
size); large eye, roughly 8% of head length; somewhat narrow mouth, about
37–45% of head length……………………………………………………………………………………Aguarunichthys
torosus 19" A light-colored body
featuring small dark spots that are less than the size of the eye; a small
eye accounting for around 6% of the head's length; a broad mouth that makes
up 55% of the head's length; there is a light stripe without spots that slopes
between the dorsal fin's base and the pelvic fin's base…………………………………………Aguarunichthys inpai 20' A slender
mouth located on the underside, with fleshy lips and a fold of skin at the
mouth's corners resembling a pocket; a delicate,
relatively bendable pectoral spine……………………………………………Genus
Cheirocerus (2 species)………21 20" A broad
and terminally positioned mouth; lips that are narrow and lack noticeable
skin folds at the mouth's edges; a sturdy, wide pectoral spine that is
well-ossified……………………………………………………………………………………………………………22 21' A dark
saddle-shaped mark appears on the back just in front of the dorsal fin; has
17 to 21 gill rakers on the first gill arch……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Cheirocerus eques 21" A dark
triangular or crescent-shaped mark is located on the back immediately ahead
of the dorsal fin; it shows 23 to 27 gill rakers on the first gill arch………………………………………………………………………………………………………Cheirocerus goeldii 22' A short
pectoral spine measuring two-thirds the length of the subsequent branched
ray; vomer tooth plates meet at the midline of the palate…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Duopalatinus peruanus 22" A lengthy
pectoral spine that is either equal to or slightly smaller than the next
branched ray; vomer tooth plates, when present, are separated from each other
along the midline of the palate………………………………………………………………23 23' Premaxillary teeth are comparatively
large and conical, arranged in 2 to 3 rows; the adipose fin is very long,
spanning almost the full distance between the dorsal fin and the caudal fin's
base…………………………………………………………………………24 23" Premaxillary teeth arranged in
multiple rows of slender conical teeth; the adipose fin is relatively short,
distinctly separated from the back portion of the dorsal fin………………………………………………………………………………………………………………29 24' A small eye,
more than 5 times the length of the head; a low dorsal fin almost as high as
the front section of the adipose fin, accompanied by a short spine…………………………………………………………………………………………Exallodontus aguanai 24" A
relatively large eye, less than 5 times the head's length; a high dorsal fin
clearly above the adipose fin, with a long spine…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Genus
Propimelodus
(5 species)………25 25' A lobe is
found on the initial rays of the anal fin ("anal with lobe")……………………………………………………Propimelodus sp. 25" The anal
fin has no lobe………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………26' 26' A long adipose
fin measuring 2.3 to 2.6 times in CP; the head is 4.6 to 5.3 times in CP; eye
diameter ranges from 14.5 to 21.1% of head length and 31 to 44% of snout
length; the premaxilla has 4 to 5 rows of teeth, with 20 to 23 gill rakers……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Propimelodus caesius
26" A short
adipose fin measuring 2.4 to 3.0 times in the CP……………………………………………………………………………………………27' 27' A short maxillary barbel that
extends no further than the end of the adipose fin; the body is uniformly
low, with a gently rising predorsal profile; the
adipose fin is low, with its maximum height matching that of the caudal
peduncle; the supraoccipital process has a relatively uniform width
throughout its length……………………………………Pimelodidae sp. 27" A long
maxillary barbel that reaches or exceeds the caudal fin; the body is
relatively tall, featuring a gently rising predorsal
profile; the adipose fin is high, with its maximum height surpassing that of
the caudal peduncle; the supraoccipital process has a broad base……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………28' 28' The barbels
are comparatively short, with the maxillary barbel reaching the caudal fin
but not surpassing it; the external mental barbel does not extend to the
first pelvic ray; the internal mental barbels meet but do not go beyond the
pectoral fin; The adipose fin is present 2.9 to 3.0 times in CP; the
premaxillary tooth plate features numerous rows of fine teeth and has a
lateral posterior projection; the head is contained 4.2 times in CP…………………Propimelodus sp. 28" The
barbels are lengthy, as the maxillary barbel goes beyond the caudal fin; the
external mental barbel reaches the first pelvic ray; the internal mental
barbel extends to the pectoral fin; the adipose fin is 2.4 to 2.9 times
present in CP; the premaxillary tooth plate consists of 4 to 6 uneven rows of
robust conical teeth, lacking a lateral posterior projection; and the head is
3.9 to 4.3 times contained in CP ("BCD - short adipose")…………………………………………………Propimelodus sp. 29' The maxillary barbel is extremely
long and has a rigid, ossified base; the coloration consists of two or more
round black spots on the front side of the flanks; a prominent black stripe
stretches from the lower part of the caudal peduncle to the fin's tip………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………30' 29" The length of the maxillary
barbel varies but features a flexible base without any ossification; the
color differs from the previously mentioned
shade…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………31' 30'
The snout has a rounded to trapezoidal end, slightly extending ahead of where
the maxillary barbels connect; the premaxillary tooth plate is partially
visible from a ventral perspective……………………………………………Platysilurus mucosus 30" The snout is triangular with a
pointed tip; the premaxillary tooth plate is fully exposed, creating a large
triangular view from below; a very long snout resembles a rostrum,
significantly extending in front of the maxillary barbel insertion point………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Platystomatichthys sturio 31'
The caudal fin is emarginate; the head is short and broad, featuring small
eyes and a wide, flat space between the eyes; the palatal tooth plate appears
as a narrow transverse band, with tips curving backward into points; the
overall body color ranges from gray to yellowish, with many darker
spots……………………………………………………………Zungaro zungaro 31"
The caudal fin is forked; the head is relatively long; the interorbital space
varies, as does the eye size; the palatal teeth do not create a transverse
band; the color pattern is variable but never matches the one described
above………32' 32' The
color pattern is characterized by alternating dark and light vertical bands,
which may be either separate or
interconnected……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………33' 32" A uniform gray color scheme is present, with a lighter belly
area that may or may not have several round dark
spots……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………36' 33' The caudal fin is deeply forked with
pointed lobes, occasionally elongated into a filament………………………………………35' 33"
The caudal fin exhibits a mild fork to emarginate, with rounded lobes and is
never extended into a filament………34' 34' The coloration
consists of a grayish or olive base with narrow black vertical stripes that
alternate with very thin white ones; there are black spots on the head and
lower part of the flanks; the sides of the head display a straight outline;
shallow fontanelle………………………………………………………………………………………………………Pseudoplatystoma punctifer 34" The
coloration consists of a light gray background featuring irregular, networked
black stripes, creating various patterns along the sides; the snout has a
central narrowing and is slightly broader
at its tip
compared to the
middle section; clearly
defined
fontanelle…………………………………………………………………………………………Pseudoplatystoma
tigrinum 35' The
appearance is characterized by slender black stripes that run diagonally
across the body, lacking any connections; the tail fin displays slender
vertical black stripes; the snout is long and flattened; the base of the
adipose fin is longer than that of the anal fin…………………………………………………………………………………………Brachyplatystoma
tigrinum 35"
The coloration includes broad, nearly vertical dark bands that are
interconnected on the body, with no connections; the tail fin has irregular
dark blotches, never forming narrow vertical lines; the snout is
comparatively short and elevated; and the base of the adipose fin is roughly
the same size as that of the anal
fin………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Brachyplatystoma juruense 36' The
maxillary and mental barbels are broad and flat, shaped like ribbons…………………………………………………………………37' 36" The maxillary and mental barbels
are thin and rounded, never resembling ribbons…………………………………………………38' 37' The head and
snout are short; the maxillary barbels are also short, not reaching the
pelvic fin origins; the dorsal fin features an extended first ray turning
into a filament; the body is marked by numerous dark spots on a gray
background; the tail fin has blackened median rays and part of the lower
lobe……………………Platynematichthys notatus 37"
The head and snout are elongated; maxillary barbels are long, reaching or
exceeding the pelvic fin origins; the dorsal fin lacks a filament; the body
is uniformly gray with a lighter underbelly; the tail fin is a consistent
light gray……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Brachyplatystoma platynemum 38' The
supraoccipital process is robust, clearly visible, and touches the predorsal plate………………………………………………40' 38" The supraoccipital process is
short and slender, barely noticeable, with its end separated from the predorsal plate by a small area of
skin…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………39' 39' The adipose fin is long, with
its base larger than that of the anal fin……………………………Brachyplatystoma vaillantii 40' The body is gray and becomes
progressively lighter (whitish) on the belly; the premaxilla has a series of
larger, flattened teeth at the back; the tail fin is rounded with lobes that
are rounded……………Brachyplatystoma
filamentosum 40" The body is uniformly
silvery-white or faintly and gradually shaded; the back is light to medium
gray; it has no spots or stripes, and the premaxillary tooth band features
uniformly slightly flattened teeth; the tail fin has pointed lobes with short
barbels, which do not reach the end of the dorsal fin and are often slightly
shorter than the head……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Brachyplatystoma rousseauxii |
4 Conclusions
Phylogenetic and morphological
analyses provide a strong basis for understanding the evolution and taxonomy of
Brachyplatystoma. Proposing a B. vaillantii and B. rousseauxii taxonomical
key is crucial for many purposes, like genetic studies, which can reveal
cryptic diversity and population structure. An integrative approach combining
molecular and morphological data is essential to accurately define species
boundaries and guide effective conservation. This is vital for managing these
important migratory catfish, being critical to the Amazon's ecology and
fisheries. Further research is needed to refine the taxonomy of the genus Brachyplatystoma.
CREDIT AUTHORSHIP CONTRIBUTION STATEMENT
K.M.C.
and U.S. contributed equally to all aspects of this study, including
conceptualisation, methodology, data acquisition, writing, proofreading, and
validation.
DECLARATION OF
INTEREST
The authors disclose
that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence this study.
FUNDING SOURCE
This research was funded
by the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES,
Brasil), Finance Code 001. K.M.C. is supported by the MSc scholarship, CAPES
reference 88887.147149/2025-00; U.S. is supported by the PhD scholarship, CAPES
reference 88887.913380/2023-00 — both ones from Programa
de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia Aquática e Pesca
(PPGEAP), Núcleo de Ecologia
Aquática e Pesca da Amazônia (NEAP), Federal
University of Pará (UFPA).
AI-BASED WRITING
STATEMENT
The authors who carried out this
research declare the use of an AI-based tool to promote improvements in the
writing of this manuscript.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors
acknowledge Prof. Dimítri de Araújo Costa for his scientific guidance and
support throughout this study. The authors also express their gratitude to the
anonymous reviewers for their insightful and constructive suggestions, which
greatly improved the quality of this manuscript.
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